THE SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF VERBAL ARTS IN THE YORÙBÁ INDIGENOUS HEALTHCARE PRACTICES

1.0             Introduction

The paper focuses on the Yorùbá verbal arts used in indigenous healthcare system.  By verbal arts, we mean the various literary genres used in reflecting and expressing the belief, religion, worldview and values of the society.  Specifically, the verbal arts under study are the genres used among the Yorùbá people to manage their physical, mental and social well-being in pre and post colonial era.  Before we go further in this paper, it is also important to give a brief definition of the term ‘function’.  The word ‘function’ conveys to our mind a ‘special activity or purpose of a person or a phenomenon’.  Macdonald (1980:526) refers to ‘function’ as the doing of a thing… activity appropriate to any person or thing, duty peculiar to any office.  In this study, we regard function as a service rendered by a certain thing.  Therefore, we shall attempt to discuss the functions of the verbal arts used in the Yorùbá indigenous healthcare delivery system.  The Yorùbá verbal arts used in indigenous healthcare practices, as we observe, have various functions among the users.  These functions are discussed at three different levels – communicative, aesthetic and ritual functions.  By nature, some of these functions of the said verbal arts are therapeutic, because of their psychological relevancies.  Therefore, their efficacious nature is discussed in this paper, so as to exhibit the power of the verbal arts among the Yorùbá.

 

2.0             Communicative Functions of the Yorùbá health-related Genres

The Yorùbá verbal arts in indigenous healthcare practices have strong informative functions that urge mankind to be aware of the appropriate step to be taken towards ensuring cure within the indigenous healthcare delivery system.  The most important thing in this section is to know the means of communication, that is, how communication is achieved.  The users of the health-related verbal arts express their views to humanity, just as it is highlighted in Àlàbá (1985:52) that the users of verbal arts do

 

            ….express the ideas, values and feelings generated in

            them as they experience their society at various times

            within the dramatic ambience created by the lively

            exchanges and also the continuous creative process

            determined by the current mood.

 

The users of the verbal arts in healthcare practices do express their feelings without being afraid of any consequence that might follow if the utterances provoke the recipient.  This type of expression is common among the itinerant performance groups such as musicians and masquerades.  In one of the records waxed by Fàtáì Olówónyò?, he expresses his wish to all his opponents thus:

 

                        ….E?ní porí Àkàndé níbi,

                        Á worí alákàn dó?run,

                        Àfi tó bá rí i ni yó dè?yìn,

                        Ìka kan s?os?o kò móókan nílè? rí o,

                        Lágbára ló?wó? àwo?n àgbà.

 

                        ….Whoever thinks evil of Àkàndé,

                        Will search for the crab’s head in heaven,

                        Will not come back until it is found.

                        A finder has never been able to pick a thing.

                        By the special power of the elders…..

 

The artiste airs his view on what should happen to his adversaries without being afraid that he might be accused of murder or evil intention.  Also in the natal songs, the users do express their views without fear:

 

                        Kí n má s?e rófò alé?, àmín o,

                        Kemi má s?e rófò alé? o,

                        Korogún mi má wolé dè mí,

                        Kemi má s?e rófò alé? o.

 

                        May I not suffer loss when I am aged, amen

                        May I not suffer loss when I am aged,

                        May my co-wife not outlive me,

                        May I not suffer loss when I am aged.

 

The raconteur does not care whether her co-wife is alive and in good condition or not, her aim is to live longer than her co-wife.  She is not afraid to speak out her wish, which she knows is not welcome by the other party.  In each context of verbal arts in health-related issues, there are an addresser (encoder), a message (code) and an addressee (decoder).  The addresser conveys message(s) to the addressee.

 

            Addresser               Message                 Addressee

 

The addressee depends on the type of verbal art being discussed.  The addressers in orin-ìbo? (Liturgical songs), ìbà (homage).  O?fò? (incantations), àyájó? (myth-like incantations), ìwúre (supplicatory blessings), èpè (curse), è?bè? (propitiation) and orin-ìbejì (twin babies’ songs) are usually elderly persons or those who are spiritually inclined while the addresses are the supernatural agents who are in the position to make the wishes of the addresser(s) realistic.  The message(s) of any context is/are the wishes of the addresser(s) which depends on what each addresser wants to acquire from the supernatural agent, though it is obvious that the message from the addresser(s) is to boost the health of the target, regardless of how he or she gets the request. This is explained below in our graphic illustration.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

orin-ìbo?, o?fò?, àyájó?

ìwúre, èpè, è?bè?

orin-ìbejì

 

  addressers            orin-ibo, ofo, ayajo,

                                     Iwure, epe, ebe                      addresses

   

 

 

 

        Human beings

 messages

        (usually adults )                                                         Supernatural

                                                                                            agents

 

       

 

                                                      Spiritual1

 

Other verbal arts such as oríkì (verbal Salutes), orin-ìre?mo?lé?kún (lullabies), orin-erés?ùpá/orin àló?-onítàn(moonlight songs) and orin-ìpàdé o?ló?mo?wé?wé? (natal songs) used in the indigenous healthcare delivery system are a bit more secular than the ones earlier mentioned above.  The addresser could be an elderly person (in the case of oríkì) or not (for other verbal arts in this category).  The addressee is usually physical and direct, that is, the addressee may have a direct contact with the addresser.  It is depicted in our following graphic illustration that the message is secular and the focus of the message depends on the wishes of the addresser just as discussed in the above illustration.

oíkì, orin-ìre?mo?lé?kún

orin-erés?ùpáorin-ìpàdé o?ló?mo?– wé?wé?

 

  addressers            orin-ibo, ofo, ayajo,

                                     Iwure, epe, ebe                          addressee

   

 

 

 

     messages

       Elderly persons

       or younger ones                                                                   Human

                                                                                                       beings

        

                                                           Secular

 

Through the Yorùbá verbal arts (in indigenous health management), the users are well informed of the beliefs, convictions, fears of the unknown and the aspiration of the Yorùbá traditional setting.  The orin-ìbo? (liturgical songs) extracted from orin-àgbo?n during Ò?s?àrà festival at Ilé-Ifè? discusses the belief of the Yorùbá on how their society views the possession of children.

 

                        B’óníwá máa wí

                        Áá ní o?mo? l’afé? ayé

                        B’é?lè?yìn máa sò?rò?

                        Áá l’ó?mo? s?ó? mi ò

                        O?mo? mi láá gbé mi sin

                        L’ó?jó? mo bá d’arúgbó

                        O?mo? láá das?o? bò mi o

                        L’ó?jó? ogbó mi o.

 

 

                        The elders usually say

                        Children are good to be proud of

                        The younger ones also usually say that,

                        They should be endowed with caring children

                        My children will bury me

                        Whenever I join the ancestors

                        My children will cover me with cloth

                        When I pass on.

 

This type of songs makesk the bareen, expectant, and the nursing mothers participating in the Ò?s?àrà festival cheerful and optimistic.  The addresser here is the woman aspiring to have children or seeking divine guidance over her children, while the addressee is Ò?s?àrà, the divinity that is primarily concerned with the health of the children.  The message conveyed could be in two ways.  The message goes to the divinity that is to grant the request of the addresser.  Also, the message goes to the whole society of the user, to show how important children are in the Yoruba society.

 

The Yorùbá society is acquainted with the powers of the unknown through their health-related verbal arts.  Death, disease, and witches are the most dreadful unknown malevolent spirits that usually feature in the Yorùbá health-related verbal arts.  The verbal arts do prevent the problems that could be caused by the unknown spirits and thereafter convey the message on how the solution(s) could be proffered to mankind.  The following illustration is a good example of such genres:

                       

                     Ò?sáyòó awo ayé

                        Ò?sáyòó awo ilè?

Ó dífá fún Baraapetu, baba n t’Ìkò?lé ò?run bò? wá

 s’Íkò?lé ayé. Ó pàdé àwo?n àgbààgbà Olúfè? ló?nà.

 Wó?n níbo ló n lo?. Baba ní òun n lo? s’Íkò?lé ayé.  Wó?n

 l’áwo?n ajogun n be? níbè?, o?mo? e?ni ni wó?n n pa kiri.

  Ó ní bíi tòun kó?, pé:

                        Táa bá jè?ko?,

                        Àá dáríjewé

                        Ó ní:

                        Táa bá jè?gè?dè? tán,

                        Àá dáríji eèpo

                        Njé? mo deèpo lónìí,

                        E? yáa dáríjì mí o

                        Je?ge?de? jè?gè?dè?

                      Jè?gè?dè? ayé n túnbò?ó? jè?gè?dè?

                        Os?ó ilé, e? dáríjì mí

                        Je?ge?de? jè?gè?dè?

                        Jè?gè?dè? ayé n túnbò?ó? jè?gè?dè?

 

 

                        Ò?sáyòó, the earthly diviner

                        Ò?sáyòó, the underneath diviner.

Ifa divination was performed for Baraapetu, while the

 old man was coming from heavenly Ìkò?lé to Ìkò?lé on

 earth.  He met the elderly men of Olúfè? on his way. 

They asked where he was going.  The old man said he

 was going to earthly Ikole.  They informed him of the

malevolent spirits, who were killing peoples’ offsprings on

 earth, just for no reason.  He said it could not happen

to him, because:

            When a gruesome pudding is eaten

            The leaf is left untouched

            When a banana is eaten

            The bark is left untouched

            I am now the bark

            You have to pardon me

            Keep eating banana

            The banana consumers on earth keep eating banana

            The household wizards, forgive me

            Keep eating banana

            The banana consumers on earth keep eating banana.

 

The above excerpt present Baraapetu (Ò?rúnmìlà) as the protagonist who is informed of the malevolent spirits that are unkind to mankind.  Baraapetu in this context symbolically represents the entire members of the society who are always informed of the evildoers who usually appear as stumbling blocks to the health of the society.  The pristine Baraapetu profeers metaphysical solution through which the powers of those malevolent spirits could be curbed.  The contemporary Baraapetu, we mean the living Ifá Priests, herbalists and other indigenous healers, can therefore use the the power to profer solution to the problems of their clients.

 

Through the verbal arts in indigenous healthcare practices, the aspirations of the Yorùbá society are given priority.  Besides good health, the Yorùbá aspire to be blessed with children that will acquire qualitative and quantitative Western education.  The Yorùbá make their intention/desire known through some of their verbal arts.  The following excerpt taken from natal songs gives us a clue:

           

                        Yunifásítì dára

                        Níbi t’áwo?n Ò?jò?gbó?n wà

                        Ibè? lo?mo? mi yóò lo?

                        Orí gbó?mo? mi débè? o

 

                        University is good

                        Where the Professors are

                        My children will be trained there

                        May my destiny confirm my desire.

 

Here, the nursing mother who is the encoder/addresser is appealing to her destiny to make her dream become a reality.  In this context, the destiny of the encoder is the decoder/addressee.  This aspiration of the above chanter will make some mothers who may be present and ignorant, to be aware of the value of Western education.  The song plays a dual role aiding healing (through the psychological effect it gives to them) and creating awareness of the important issues in their immediate environment. In the communicative function, it has been deduced that the users of the Yorùbá verbal arts which feature in healthcare vocations speak about themselves, the supernatural agents, request for what they desire from both celestial and terrestrial realms, advise and cheer their immediate audience and as well give information on the Yorùbá society.4   

 

3.0             Aesthetic Functions of Yorùbá Health-related Genres

In Beckson and Ganz (1961), aesthetics is described as ‘the study of the beautiful’.  There is much literary dexterity in the Yorùbá verbal arts used in indigenous healthcare delivery system.  In this paper, the aesthetic function of the verbal arts under study is discussed on three distinct levels – musical, recitative and dance.

 

The examples of Yorùbá verbal arts in healthcare practices that have musical aesthetic function include the orin-ìbo? (liturgical songs) such as orin-àgbo?n, orin-Ò?sanyìn, orin-Ò?s?un, orin-O?bàtálá and a host of others; orin-ìpàdé-o?ló?mo?wé?wé? (natal songs); and orin-ìre?mo?lé?kún (lullabies).  The tempo of the liturgical songs is faster than that of others such as lullabies and natal songs.  We observed that this might be due to the way the raconteurs are possessed with the spirits of the divinities/ancestors to which their religions are affiliated.  Through the music, members of the audience are reminded of their culture; morals are inculcated into them; they are being inspired to uphold their cultural heritage; and are as well entertained.  This entertaining function gives them a great relief on their physical and psychological ailments.

 

The recitative aesthetic function of the Yorùbá verbal arts in indigenous healthcare practices is usually exhibited in ìbà (homage), oríkì (verbal salutes, e?se?-Ifá (Ifá (verses), o?fò? (incantations), è?bè? verbal (propitiation), èpè (curses) and ìwúre (supplicatoryblessings).  The efficacy of this recitative mood carries the users away through its soothing power.  Most of the orin-ìre?mo?lé?kún (lullabies) and oríkì (verbal salutes) also possess this quality.  The verbal arts in this class work on the psyche of their targets and thereby heal them of their psychological and emotional illness.

 

An intent look at the dance aesthetic function of the Yorùbá verbal arts in the indigenous healthcare delivery system shows that their dance nature makes each of them interesting.  They also have the efficacious power that boosts the health of the users.  It is noteworthy that not all the Yorùbá verbal arts under study could be danced to, but only those that are musical.  The ones that are not musical (unless when employed in a given composition) are o?fò? (incantations), e?se?-Ifá (Ifá verse), àyájó? (myth-like incantations), oríkì (verbal salutes), ìwúre (supplicatory blessings), ìbà (homage), è?bè? (verbal propitiation) and èpè (curse).  All the orin (songs) performed in a musical setting have the dance aesthetic function.  The Yorùbá believe that dance is naturally medicinal, that is, it makes the participants (dancers) keep fit.  This fact is borne out in orin-Ò?sanyìn thus:

 

                        Ará yá

                        Ara yà

                        Ará yá’jó? Àgbé5  o

                        Ará yá

                        Ara yà

                        Ará yá’jó? Ò?sanyìn

 

                        One is healthy

                        Extremely healthy

                        One is healthy during Àgbé festival

                        One is healthy

                        Extremely healthy

                        One is healthy during Ò?sanyìn festival.

 

Most of the liturgical songs require more rigorous dance steps than the other songs, because the tempo is faster.  For instance, S?àngó dance demands more energy and rigour, else the dancer’s performance would not appeal to the audience if the expected rigour and agility are not displayed.  It is that vigour and tempo that make it appealing to those who love it among the Yoruba.  This point corroborates the proverbial saying; ‘Onísàngó tó jó tí kò tàpá, àbùkù ara rè? ni’ meaning ‘The Sàngó devotee that dances without using his/her legs vigorously should be ashamed of him or herself.

 

4.0             Ritual Functions

The study has shown that some of the Yorùbá verbal arts in indigenous healthcare delivery system are ritualistic in nature.  This ritualistic efficacy in the verbal arts under study is in connection with the Yorùbá belief in supernatural powers.  The verbal arts involved in those ritual functions are ìbà (homage), è?bè? (verbal propitiation), èpè (curse), ìwúre (suplicatory blessings), orin-ìbo? (liturgical songs), orin-ìbejì (twins’ songs), o?fò? (incantations) and àyájó? (myth-like incantations).  The accompanying prreparatiion and the materials involved in the course of performing these genres make them ritualistic in most cases.  The ritual functions can be discussed in two different areas, and these are benediction and thaumaturgy.  Though, the ritualistic feature does not show in the content of some of the excerpts used in healthcare practices, but it is demonstrated in their performances/rendition.  The work of Biebuyck and Mateena (1971:14) supports this claim thus.

 

            ….What is present here as a piece of oral literature

            is much more than that.  It is music, rhythm song,

            dance, movement, dramatic entertainment.  It is

            feasting and gift-giving (those who present the gifts

            dance and gesticulate).  It is group solidarity and

            mass participation.  For the bard himself, the act of

            narrating the story has religious significance.

 

4.1       Benediction

The Yorùbá enjoy and cherish benediction a great deal.  Benediction in healthcare services features in forms of eulogy, prayer and gratitude.  The Yorùbá believe that, with benediction, whatever one sets out for would be fruitful.  This is pointed out in O?lábímtán’s work, as quoted in Àlàbá (1985:88).

 

            In all activities-embarked upon by our forefathers,

            Ìwúre (benediction) was very important; and they

            were usually confident that all they uttered (in

            ìwúre) would definitely come to pass.

 

Hence the common saying among the Yorùbá is ‘e?nu aráyé le?bo?’ meaning that man’s utterance is mysterious and powerful.  This is a way of exhibiting the efficacy of words among the Yorùbá.  This belief also makes the users of natal songs employ benediction in their songs.

 

(i)                 Àdúrà tí mo n gbà ló?dè?dè? o?ko?

O?ba jé? kó s?eé s?e o.

Àdúrà tí mo n gbà ló?dè?dè? o?ko?

O?ba jé? kó s?eé s?e o

Tís?u o?mo? bá jinná

Bá jinná!

Kó má lé mi jáde o.

Táya o?mo? bá wo?lé

Bá wo?lé!

Kó má lé mi jáde

Àdúrà tí mo n gbà ló?dè?dè? o?ko?.

 

My prayer in the house of my husband

Almighty God, let it be so

My prayer in the house of my husband

Almighty God, let it be so

When my children are successful!

Successful!

May I not be kicked out

When my sons get married

Get married!

May their wives not kick me out

Is my prayer in the house of my husband.

 

(ii)               Aboyún ayé tótó.

Wé?ré? la ó ma bí.

Aboyún ayé tótó,

Wé?ré? la ó ma bí.

Ès?ù ò mà ní rán’mo? wá pè wá.

Aboyún ayé tótó,

Wé?ré? la ó ma bí.

 

The expectant mothers of the world,

We shall have our babies peacefully

The expectant mothers of the world,

We shall have our babies peacefully.

The devil will have no power to use

     our children to kill us.

The expectant mothers of the world,

We shall have our babies peacefully.

 

The nursing and the expectant mothers in the Yorùbá society believe that through benediction, they are secured, their children would be healthy and they would also have their babies safely without any complication.  They also believe that if they have a fervent prayer, there would be no marital problem and their male children would take adequate care of them when they are old.  Having influenced by the socio-cultural background, through which they are brought up, they are able to heal up their emotional social problems.  In the venue of the performance, these songs are rendered with full concentration as if they see the God they commune with.  They demonstrate a lot while rendering the songs and each demonstration tallies with what they utter in their songs.

4.2             Thaumaturgical Words

Thaumaturgical words are the words used to work miracles.  In other words, they consist of the doctrine of the miraculous origination of life and the description of natural wonders.  The users of verbal arts in the Yorùbá indigenous healthcare delivery system highly recognize the power of words.  This is also observed in Jahn (1952:133).

 

            If there were no words, all forces would be frozen,

            there would be no procreation, no change, no life…

            For the word holds the course of things in train and

            changes and transforms them.  And since the word

            has this power, every word is an effective word, every

            word is binding.

 

The above scholar whose observation collaborates the biblical dimension in the gospel according to Saint John 1:1, is drawing our attention to the efficacy of spoken words, and with this type of observation, we can imagine how such efficacy, in accordance to the Yorùbá belief, has contributed immensely to their indigenous healthcare practices.  The efficacy of words is also demonstrated in some of the Yorùbá health-related verbal arts.  All the excerpts in àyájó? (myth-like incantations), o?fò? (incantations), è?bè? (verbal propitiation), èpè (curse), e?se?-Ifá (Ifá verses), ìwúre (supplicatory blessings) and ìbà (homage)are typical examples of thaumaturgical words.  The Yorùbá belief in the mystical power of words has since been observed in the opinion of Mbiti (1969:7).

 

            The words of the medicine-man work through the

            medicine he gives and it is this, perhaps more than

            the actual herb which is thought to cause the cure

            or prevent misfortunes.

 

The Yorùbá believe that spoken words are sine qua non to whatever they embark on including preparation of medicine for healing and other things.  Their saying that reveals this goes thus: e?jó? làá bóògùn rò meaning that, it is the spoken words that activate medicine.  The excerpt below extracted from o?fò? (incantations) used for delivery by the indigenous midwives among the Yorùbá is a matching example of such genres that depicts the efficacy of spoken words:

 

                        Ojúmó? mó?

                        Awo Alárá

                        È?dà gìrìgìrì

                        Awo Òkè-Ìjerò

                        A díá fó?mo? tuntun tó n t’Ìkò?lé ò?run bò? wáyé

                        Ibi má s?íwájú o?mo?

                        O?mo? ni kó s?íwájú ibi

                        E?kùn n bò? o

                        Ajá kì í fojú k’e?kùn

                        Ìwo? o?mo? yìí

                        Ajá ti wo?lé

                        E?kùn n bò?

                        B’é?kùn bá ti kàn é? lára, ìta

 

                        It is dawn

                        Ifá Priest of Alárá

                        A great pouring

                        Ifá Priest of Òkè-Ìjerò

                        Ifá divination was performed for a new baby while

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Article Tags:
Psychological, Ritual, Therapeutic, aesthetic, communicative, relevancies, functions.

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THE SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF VERBAL ARTS IN THE YORÙBÁ INDIGENOUS HEALTHCARE PRACTICES

1.0 Introduction
The paper focuses on the Yorùbá verbal arts used in indigenous healthcare system. The Yorùbá verbal arts used in indigenous healthcare practices, as we observe, have various functions among the users. These functions are discussed at three different levels – communicative, aesthetic and ritual functions. By nature, some of these functions of the said verbal arts are therapeutic, because of their psychological relevancies.

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Poultice Recipe

A what? That might be your question when someone mentions the word, poultice. But an herbal poultice is nothing more than a thick, moist, warm herbal paste applied directly to the skin. Its purpose is to relieve pain, inflammation and swelling as well as relieving muscle spasms. You can make poultices from your own home herb garden, either while they are still fresh or after they’ve been dried.

By:
Kali S Wintersl

Health>
Alternative Medicinel
Jul 22, 2010

Natural Cure for Eczema –Neem

Eczema is a type of skin disorder which is usually refers to dermatitis. The most common symptoms which appeared occasionally in eczema patients are red, itchy, swollen and dry skin. Once the eczema became active, you will find it hard to control yourself from scratching it. Many sufferers have reported excellent results with neem. Since then neem is among the most effective Natural cure for eczema.

By:
Vallerie Vandersl

Health>
Alternative Medicinel
Jul 22, 2010

3 Natural Ways to Cure Eczema

Have you ever ask yourself why you still have splotchy red spots on your skin even after spending lots of money on medications to treat your eczema? Well, for you to be reading this article about natural ways to treat eczema already answered this question. Eczema is more likely to cure if it is treated from the inside. Besides, natural eczema remedies are very expensive and less prone to side effects. Below is a compilation of three natural eczema treatments that have proved their efficiency.

By:
Vallerie Vandersl

Health>
Alternative Medicinel
Jul 22, 2010

Ìbà: The Sine-qua-non in the Yorùbá Indigenous Healthcare Practices

he paper establishes the relationship of ìbà, health and health-related issues. It also shows the rationality of this genre as therapeutic indice along with the relevance of this verbal art used in the indigenous healthcare delivery system both in the modern and traditional society. Furthermore, the paper contributes to the understanding of the therapeutic aspect of Yorùbá orature, that is, how the verbal art is used for healing.

By:
Oladele Caleb Orimoogunjel

Health>
Alternative Medicinel
May 12, 2009
lComments: 1

THE SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF VERBAL ARTS IN THE YORÙBÁ INDIGENOUS HEALTHCARE PRACTICES

1.0 Introduction
The paper focuses on the Yorùbá verbal arts used in indigenous healthcare system. The Yorùbá verbal arts used in indigenous healthcare practices, as we observe, have various functions among the users. These functions are discussed at three different levels – communicative, aesthetic and ritual functions. By nature, some of these functions of the said verbal arts are therapeutic, because of their psychological relevancies.

By:
Oladele Caleb Orimoogunjel

Health>
Alternative Medicinel
Apr 06, 2009

THE SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF VERBAL ARTS IN THE YORÙBÁ INDIGENOUS HEALTHCARE PRACTICES

1.0 Introduction
The paper focuses on the Yorùbá verbal arts used in indigenous healthcare system. The Yorùbá verbal arts used in indigenous healthcare practices, as we observe, have various functions among the users. These functions are discussed at three different levels – communicative, aesthetic and ritual functions. By nature, some of these functions of the said verbal arts are therapeutic, because of their psychological relevancies.

By:
Oladele Caleb Orimoogunjel

Health>
Alternative Medicinel
Apr 06, 2009

The Concept of Birth Control among the Yoruba

Africans are endowed with their own developmental theories. Thus, it can be argued that most of the programmes of the Western world, including birth control are complementary to the existing ones in Africa. In other words, the programmes of the Western world are not new as will be exemplified below. This paper proves tha birth control is not alien to the Yoruba. In consonance with the Yoruba views, this paper considers the importance of the concept of birth control.

By:
Oladele Caleb Orimoogunjel

Home and Family>
Parentingl
Mar 31, 2009
lViews: 163

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